Church History, Simplified

Taking a walk down the street in Indianapolis, or any other city in the United States for that matter, you will probably run into at least one church. In fact, it is likely that you will run into multiple churches that look vastly different from one another.

The United States, due to the Establishment Clause in the First Amendment to the Constitution, has been known for providing refuge and equal treatment to these Christian groups, when other nations of the world had one established church that either tolerated or persecuted others.

The Hoosier Reformer is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.

Understanding the history of these denominations is important for modern Christians who hope to better connect with their own historical tradition and better understand that of their peers.

All Christians, whether they realize it or not, attest to one major statement of faith, the Nicene Creed.

“We believe in one God, the Father, the almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen.

We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven; by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate of the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.

We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father (and the Son)*. With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen.”

Among modern evangelical Christians, an under-appreciated consequence of this creed is theotokos, or the doctrine that Mary is properly considered the Mother of God. To say otherwise would suggest that Jesus obtained divinity some time after his conception and his divine and human natures are independent. This was condemned in the fifth century as the Nestorian Heresy.

Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy are two major branches of Christianity.

The theology of the former tends to view the church as more of a court, whereas the latter tends to view the church as more of a hospital for the sick (denying that actual guilt results from original sin, and viewing sin as a sickness).

The schism between them was partially a result of political matters, as the eastern and western Roman Empire split and grew further apart culturally, especially after the eastern Roman Empire was taken over by the Islamic caliphate in the 1450s.

They also disagreed on the Roman doctrines of papal supremacy, priestly celibacy, and the Filioque Clause of the Nicene Creed, as inserted above in parenthesis, although many recognize that the two have equivalent views that are simply stated differently.

A larger portion of Americans, however, would identify as Protestant. Within Protestantism, there is a larger degree of variety in doctrinal beliefs.

All protestants, however, tend to affirm the so-called “Five Solas,” although they often interpret them differently.

Sola Scriptura -

Scripture, or the Bible, is the only inerrant and final authority for doctrine and the church.

Solus Christus -

Through the work of Christ alone is a sinner made righteous in the sight of God.

Sola Fide -

A sinner receives this justification through faith alone.

Sola Gratia -

The entirety of our salvation is a result of the grace of God.

Soli Deo Gloria -

Only God can receive the glory for our salvation.

They also typically only recognize two sacraments, or ordinances, the Lord’s Supper (or communion) and baptism.

The greatest debates within Protestantism typically deal with the degree of importance placed on Scripture as opposed to tradition, and personal emotion or experience. The exact way that grace is involved is also debated.

Following the much-acclaimed nailing of the 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg Church in 1517 by Martin Luther, a German monk and university professor, marking the beginning of what we now call the Reformation, a few major traditions arose.

The two major categories of traditions are classical protestantism and the radical protestantism.

Radical protestants were much more comfortable with the role of free will in salvation and works, a view that was not significantly different than the Roman Catholic doctrine of synergism, which emphasized man “cooperating,” so to speak, with the grace of God to obtain salvation. Otherwise, they were generally characterized by a clean break from Catholic tradition, a refusal to baptize infants, which was in part a result of their emphasis on the separation of church and state, and part on their emphasis on human effort in salvation. They also affirmed memorialism, or the idea that the Lord’s Supper was only a symbolic ordinance. As a result, they were referred to as “Anabaptists,” meaning “baptized again,” since they viewed their own baptisms as infants as invalid.

For the latter reason, they were often branded as seditious, and heavily persecuted. Occasionally their radical views led them to actual sedition, such as during the German Peasant’s War in 1524. Otherwise, they were difficult to pin down theologically, as there was not as much of an emphasis on doctrinal unity. The Mennonites are the only major extent group of radical protestants, formed in 1525. The Amish erupted from a schism in the Mennonite church in 1693.

Classical Protestants, on the other hand, were strictly confessional. That is to say, they laid out their fundamental teachings and interpretations of the scripture in founding documents, which like the Constitution served as a guide for future leaders of the faith, constrained their authority, and enabled laypeople to hold them accountable if they started to introduce new or false doctrine.

Their aim was not so much to separate from the Catholic Church and abandon its teachings, but to reform them and bring them in line with Scripture. As such, they retained a high view of the sacraments and church government, and baptized infants.

They also tended to interpret Soli Deo Gloria and Sola Gratia through an Augustinian lens, expressing a view known as monergism.

That is to say, salvation is entirely a work of God and not a product of human effort. They would even say that faith is a gift of God. For that reason, they would typically reject simplifying salvation to “accepting Jesus Christ,” viewing that as something entirely outside of human effort outside of the complete grace of God.

That being said, they viewed works as a natural result of faith.

“We are saved by faith alone, but that faith is never alone,” is a quote often attributed to Martin Luther that speaks that effect.

The three major traditions of classical protestantism are Lutheran, Reformed, and Anglican.

Lutherans

The tradition associated with Luther first called themselves Evangelical catholics; “Lutheran” was a term of derision but was later adopted by the group.

They are distinguished by their view that Christ’s body and blood is really present in the Lord’s Supper. Like most Protestants, they also reject transubstantiation, or the idea that the elements of the Lord’s Supper (bread and wine) cease to be bread and wine entirely once they are consecrated by a priest, and they reject the idea that the Lord’s Supper is a re-presentation of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross.

They also have a strong view of baptismal regeneration, or that baptism actually gives grace, brings people into a relationship with God, and with the visible church.

They also hold to a single predestination interpretation of monergism. That is to say, God has elected some to salvation, without regard to his foreknowledge of who would believe in him, and who would not.

Lutherans also view tradition as a helpful tool for interpreting scripture.

Reformed

The “Reformed” catholic tradition arose around 1525 first under Ulrich Zwingli, a priest in Zurich, Switzerland, and was modified by French academic John Calvin around 1536.

They are distinguished by a slightly less high view of the Lord’s Supper. Zwingli held a view that was slightly higher than memorialism, or the idea that it is solely a symbolic ordinance done in remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice. However, this was largely rejected by Calvin and most Reformed in favor of pneumatic presence, also known as spiritual real presence. This view suggests that Christ is really present in the Lord’s Supper, but only spiritually.

They also hold to a double predestination interpretation of monergism. That is to say, God has elected some to salvation, and others to damnation, without regard to his foreknowledge of who would believe in him, and who would not. As a result, they believe in perseverance of the saints (a form of eternal security), which entails that those who believe in Christ truly will be constrained from falling away from the faith.

They view baptism as a physical sign and a seal of a covenant relationship, which symbolizes the entrance into the church body if you are part of one of the elect.

Anglican

The Anglican Tradition arose separately in England in 1534 after the Pope refused to grant King Henry VIII an annulment to his marriage, which he sought in order to procure a male heir. King Henry VIII was a vocal critic of Luther and attempted to keep the theology mostly the same as it was under Roman Catholicism.

Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time, pushed major reforms upon Edward VI taking the throne in 1547, bringing it more into line with the Reformed and Lutheran traditions. The early period of the Anglican Church is marked by power struggles between Catholic and Protestant rulers, nobles, and reformers, which is probably part of the reason why the church historically has allowed for a greater deal of doctrinal variety than other traditions.

In all cases, Anglican churches have an episcopal structure and believe in Apostolic succession. That is to say, their church government is composed of bishops that oversee a group of churches, as well as archbishops. Historically the Archbishop of Canterbury in England has been the symbolic first among equals, while the monarch of England has been known as the “Supreme Governor of the Church,” although they do not have any direct control over church doctrine.

Anglican orthodoxy generally holds to baptismal regeneration and real presence in the Lord’s Supper, similar to the Lutherans, although there is a wider range of accepted views including transubstantiation and pneumatic presence.

Anglicans generally view tradition and reason as helpful tools for interpreting scripture.

The methodists arose as a revivalist movement connected with the Anglican Church, and while they remain within the realm of accepted Anglican doctrine, they tend to take a more Arminian view of salvation (although that is not always the case). That is to say, they emphasize that people are able to freely choose to put their faith in Christ, and will typically say that Christ’s death on the cross gave everyone the prevenient grace to do so. They took a very methodical approach to growing in the faith and discipleship, which earned them their name, and held a belief in “Christian perfection,” or that it were possible that through such a methodological approach and the grace of God, one was capable of reach a state of “perfect love,” which is not sinlessness, but rather pure intentions.

The Evangelical Movement

A majority of American protestants identify as evangelical. This movement is interdenominational, but is heavily associated with the Baptist tradition. Typically evangelicals have less of an emphasis on tradition and more on personal experience and emotion. Most churches tend to be congregationalist, meaning their individual churches are self-governing by a board of elected elders, and cooperation is largely voluntary among such bodies and typically for the purpose of foreign missions or philanthropic efforts.

They also tend to be more theologically conservative than other denominations, meaning they believe the Bible is inerrant and authoritative in modern life.

Typically, they have a more favorable view of revivals, although they share that in common with Methodists, many of whom identify as evangelical.

1611 Baptists, or General Baptists, arose out of separatists from the Anglican Church, rejected infant baptism, and were influenced by the Mennonites early on as they interacted in the Netherlands, where they initially fled from Anglican persecution. Once they returned to England, they explicitly affirmed spiritual real presence, an arminian view of salvation, and emphasized separation of church and state.

Part of the reason for rejecting infant baptism included the separatist belief that the church body should contain only true believers in Christ, which was not realistic under the state-supported Anglican church.

1689 Baptists, or Particular Baptists, arose out of nonconformists to the Anglican Church, rejected infant baptism, and were influenced by the presbyterians. They took a reformed view of salvation, although like the 1611 Baptists, they tended to believe the covenant relationship symbolized by baptism applied properly only to professed believers in Christ.

Most modern baptist churches, especially in the Southern Baptist Convention, take a view similar to arminianism known as provisionism, which de-emphasizes prevenient grace, affirms that the Word of God is sufficient in and of itself to provoke belief, and affirms eternal security of the believer. There is, however, a large minority of particular baptists, including popular figures like John Piper and Paul Washer, some of which take the title of 1689 Baptists.

More recently in history, the phrase “no creed but Christ,” has become associated with baptists.

Nondenominationals are basically the same as baptists in theology but have no connection to a great denomination structure.

Charismatics are defined by their emphasis on the continuation of “spiritual gifts,” as mentioned in Acts of the New Testament. A belief in the gifts of tongues and healing specifically are what differentiate them from other traditions. Pentecostals are the denomination most directly associated with this movement, although the tradition has influenced nondenominational and even Roman Catholics and Anglicans as well.

Restorationists emphasized “no creed but Christ” and “Sola Scriptura” more than any other group, viewing tradition as inherently destructive to Christian unity. They largely arose out out of the First and Second Great Awakening, and were the reason why “no creed but Christ” became associated with Baptists. They hoped to return to a more “pure” form of the faith as exemplified by the apostolic age, and also emphasized weekly communion. In some sense, they shared this in common with the early anabaptists.

Many suggested that where Scripture was silent, they should be also. Some restorationists rejected what they viewed as spiritual manipulation in camp revival meetings.

They tended to be extremely popular in Indianapolis, which led to many churches bearing their influence. Trader’s Point, for one, was developed by restorationists.

Some movements arose out of restorationism that left Christianity altogether, denying basic elements of the faith as formulated by the Nicene Creed. The Church of Latter Day Saints, or Mormons, are one of them, who are notable for denying the commonly accepted view of the Trinity (of God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit).

Mainstream denominations that resulted from the restorationist movement include the Disciples of Christ, which are headquartered in Indianapolis.

The United Church of Christ is sometimes associated with the restorationist movement, although it is significantly newer, originating in 1957 upon the merger of the Evangelical, Reformed, and Congregational churches. It has its roots, however, in the General Council of Congregational Christian Churches. It emphasizes Sola Scriptura and ecumenical efforts.

A different organization of the same name came into existence during the 1900s in the midst of the fundamentalist-modernist controversy in an attempt to form a sort of federal government structure for various denominations, also to encourage ecumenical efforts.

Before the modern evangelical movement, as typified by Billy Graham and others, there was the fundamentalist movement. This had many of the same traits as evangelicalism, including a belief in biblical inerrancy and emphasis on upholding core doctrines of faith such as the virgin birth of Christ. They also were notable for rejecting Darwin’s theory of evolution. They flatly rejected charismatic doctrine and had a more separatist view of the culture.

Dispensationalism also arose within this movement, and rejected the commonly accepted view beforehand that the Christian church was the continuation of the biblical Israel, and thought that all Christians would be raptured before the end times, followed by a period of great tribulation, and a literal 1000 year reign of Christ on earth.

More recently, the theological conservatism of the evangelical movement inspired new classical protestant, mainline denominations to form which mirrored the old ones but emphasized biblical inerrancy and a return to their historical confessions and traditions.

Church Government is another way in which denominations differ. While there are three primary classical Protestant traditions, and three primary evangelical Protestant traditions, many specific denominations differ in how they operate. As mentioned previously, evangelical denominations tend to be congregational, although there are exceptions.

Denominations in the Reformed tradition tend to be governed by some form of a presbytery. This means they elect a board of elders over their church, which is also overseen by a larger body of all of the ministers of the denomination in addition to one or two elders (or presbyters) from each congregation in a district. As mentioned above, Anglicans use an episcopal government structure, as do Methodists (typically).

Theological Conservatism and Confessionalism is another major difference between denominations, especially among the mainline denominations. Confessionalism would be the degree to which a church body adheres to the founding confessions. Many of the larger mainline church bodies do not emphasize a strict adherence to these confessions, reject biblical inerrancy, and emphasize a social gospel and liberal approach to Christianity. Many also embrace progressive social and economic causes. This, however, is not universally the case.

The Episcopalian church, for example, is the largest mainline denomination in the Anglican communion in the United States, and generally has a very liberal theological perspective. The Anglican Church of North America, on the other hand, split from the Episcopalian church to emphasize historic Anglican confessions and biblical inerrancy.

The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, is the largest mainline Presbyterian denomination in the United States, and takes many similar liberal theological views as a whole. The Presbyterian Church in America, on the other hand, emphasizes the historic confessions and biblical inerrancy.

Typically these breakaway groups have less of an emphasis on tradition in practice, and have less cultural connections. Many of the more historic buildings in the city tend to be occupied by the more liberal mainline denomination.

The Lutheran church is notable, however, as the more historic denomination is the Evangelical Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod, which has a significantly more confessional and theologically conservative perspective than the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.

Many of the more historic buildings in the center of Indianapolis are part of the Missouri Synod.

Some evangelical denominations have more liberal elements as well. For example, the United Church of Christ is typically theologically liberal, although in Indianapolis there are a number of more theologically conservative congregations. American Baptist Churches tend to be more theologically liberal, although not nearly to the degree as some more mainline denominations, and this generally shows as a greater degree of emphasis on the social gospel and philanthropic work and activism.

Prior to 1979, the Southern Baptist Convention had theologically liberal leaders, which is why they are notable for endorsing abortion immediately following the overturning of Roe v. Wade.

What Next?

Clearly, there is a lot of variety in American Christianity. It is important, however, for Christians to be grounded in the historic faith. As society increasingly emphasizes materialism, self-gratification, and moral relativism, the traditions of Christianity are a great way for Christians to stay grounded in their faith.

“But sanctify the Lord God in your hearts: and be ready always to give an answer to every man that asketh you a reason of the hope that is in you with meekness and fear:” - 1 Peter 3:15

Understanding these traditions does more than help Christians connect to the historicity of Christianity - it also provides intellectual rigor and purpose to the Christian’s walk. Many of these traditions grew from men of God seeking to understand their place in the world as Christians and what God’s purpose was for them, as revealed through the Scripture.

Along with prayer and the reading the Bible, pursuing the beauty of tradition is certain to be worth it.

“But grow in grace, and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. To him be glory both now and for ever. Amen.” - 2nd Peter 3:18

The Hoosier Reformer is a reader-supported publication. To receive new posts and support my work, consider becoming a free or paid subscriber.